A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes or limits the meaning of another part of a sentence. Modifiers help you identify people and things, describe actions, and express ideas more precisely.
Compare:
The journalist interviewed a musician.
The journalist interviewed a local musician.
The journalist interviewed a musician who had recently won an award.
The adjective local describes the musician, while the relative clause who had recently won an award provides more specific information about that person.
Modifiers can appear in different parts of a sentence. Their position matters because it affects which words they describe or limit and, sometimes, what the sentence means.
Types of Modifiers in English
Modifiers may consist of a single word, a phrase, or a clause. Their forms vary, but their purpose is to provide descriptive or limiting information.
Single-Word Modifiers
Adjectives and adverbs are two common types of single-word modifiers.
Adjectives describe qualities, conditions, and other characteristics of nouns.
The conservation team discovered a fragile manuscript.
The adjective fragile describes the manuscript’s condition.
Adjectives can also appear after linking verbs:
The manuscript seemed fragile.
Here, fragile describes the subject through the linking verb seemed. It functions as a subject complement rather than a modifier within the noun phrase.
Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and sometimes whole clauses.
The investigator thoroughly examined the evidence.
Thoroughly describes how the examination was carried out.
The proposed changes were remarkably practical.
Remarkably modifies the adjective practical, expressing degree.
The hikers descended unusually slowly.
Unusually modifies the adverb slowly.
Fortunately, the ferry reached the harbour before the storm.
Fortunately comments on the situation expressed by the sentence rather than describing a single action.
Not all adverbs end in -ly. Words such as fast, hard, and often can also function as adverbs.
Modifier Phrases
An adjective phrase or adverb phrase is built around a central word and may include other words that modify or complete its meaning. Prepositional phrases, participial constructions, and infinitive phrases can also function as modifiers.
Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is built around an adjective.
The volunteers distributed food packages suitable for families with young children.
The phrase suitable for families with young children describes the food packages. Its central adjective is suitable, with the following prepositional phrase completing its meaning.
An adjective phrase can provide more specific information than a single adjective, particularly when the description needs additional details.
Adverb Phrases
An adverb phrase has an adverb as its central word.
The delivery arrived considerably later than expected.
The central adverb later indicates when the delivery arrived relative to expectations. Considerably strengthens that comparison, while than expected completes it.
Adverb phrases can express degree, manner, frequency, and other meanings depending on the words involved.
Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases commonly begin with words such as in, on, under, beside, near, and after.
They can modify nouns or provide information about circumstances such as time and place.
The keys beneath the reception desk belong to the night supervisor.
The phrase beneath the reception desk identifies which keys are being discussed.
The orchestra rehearsed after the afternoon performance.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase indicates when the rehearsal took place.
The same type of phrase can therefore serve different modifying functions.
Participial Phrases
Participial phrases use present or past participles with any related words. They commonly describe nouns or pronouns.
Exhausted after the overnight journey, the passengers rested at the station.
The opening phrase describes the passengers’ condition.
The paintings restored by the museum’s conservation team will go on display next month.
The phrase restored by the museum’s conservation team identifies the paintings.
These constructions can place descriptive information before or after the person or thing being discussed.
Infinitive Phrases
An infinitive phrase usually begins with to followed by the base form of a verb.
Some infinitive phrases modify nouns.
The archive has several handwritten letters to digitize.
The phrase to digitize identifies the letters awaiting digitization.
However, infinitive phrases are not always modifiers. They can also function as subjects, complements, or other sentence elements.
Modifier Clauses
Clauses can provide information about nouns or the circumstances described in a sentence. Two important types are relative clauses and adverbial clauses.
Relative Clauses
Relative clauses typically provide information about nouns or pronouns.
The engineer who designed the bridge received an award.
The clause who designed the bridge identifies the engineer.
Relative clauses often begin with who, whom, whose, which, or that. In some constructions, the relative pronoun can be omitted:
The records we examined last week revealed several discrepancies.
The clause we examined last week specifies the records being discussed.
Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses provide information about circumstances such as time, reason, condition, or contrast.
Because the river had flooded, the organizers cancelled the cycling event.
The opening clause explains the reason for the cancellation.
The crew continued working although visibility was poor.
Here, the clause introduces a contrast between the conditions and the crew’s decision to continue.
Relative clauses usually relate to a noun or pronoun, while adverbial clauses commonly relate to the situation expressed by the main clause.
Compound Modifiers
Some modifiers contain words that work together as a single descriptive unit. These are commonly called compound modifiers.
The manufacturer introduced an energy-efficient heating system.
Energy-efficient describes the heating system.
The charity organized a three-day fundraising event.
The compound three-day specifies the event’s duration.
Many compound modifiers are hyphenated before nouns to make the relationship between their words clear.
However, not every multiword modifier needs a hyphen.
The publisher released a beautifully illustrated edition.
No hyphen is needed between beautifully and illustrated because beautifully is an -ly adverb modifying the participle.
Some compounds also have established spellings that retain or omit hyphens regardless of their position.
How Multiple Modifiers Work Together
A modifier can contain another modifier within it. This is common in longer descriptive expressions.
Consider:
The guide examined the trail marked with unusually bright flags.
The phrase marked with unusually bright flags identifies the trail.
Within that description, bright describes the flags, while unusually modifies bright.
The relationships can be understood as follows:
- Marked with unusually bright flags describes trail.
- Bright describes flags.
- Unusually modifies bright.
The word unusually does not describe the trail or the guide’s examination. It belongs to the smaller expression unusually bright, which forms part of the larger description.
Recognizing these relationships is particularly useful when a sentence contains several descriptive words grouped together.
Where Do Modifiers Appear in a Sentence?
Some modifiers appear before nouns, while others follow them. Adverbs and adverbial expressions can occupy a wider range of positions.
Within noun phrases, premodifier and postmodifier are the terms used for expressions appearing before and after the main noun.
Modifiers Before a Noun
A premodifier appears before the main noun in a noun phrase.
The collector purchased a rare eighteenth-century map.
Both rare and eighteenth-century describe the map.
Nouns can function as premodifiers too:
The council approved the road safety proposal.
Here, road and safety specify the subject of the proposal.
Modifiers After a Noun
A postmodifier follows the main noun in a noun phrase.
The apartment above the bakery is available for rent.
The prepositional phrase identifies the apartment.
The woman waiting beside the ticket counter is our tour coordinator.
The participial construction identifies the woman.
Postmodifiers are particularly useful for longer descriptions that would sound unnatural before a noun.
Modifiers in Other Positions
Not every modifier belongs inside a noun phrase.
Some adverbs and adverbial expressions can appear at the beginning or end of a clause.
Yesterday, the manager approved the revised schedule.
The manager approved the revised schedule yesterday.
Both sentences tell us when the approval occurred.
Other expressions have more restricted positions:
The storage room is large enough for the equipment.
The adverb enough follows the adjective large. Placing it before the adjective would not be standard English in this construction.
How Modifier Placement Changes Meaning
A modifier’s position can sometimes change which person, thing, or action a statement refers to.
This is especially noticeable with limiting modifiers such as only, even, and just. Their interpretation depends on what they focus on, and context or spoken emphasis may also matter.
Compare:
Only Priya reviewed the contract.
Priya reviewed only the contract.
The first sentence identifies Priya as the only person who reviewed the contract.
The second says that the contract was the only thing Priya reviewed. It does not rule out someone else reviewing it.
The word only is present in both sentences, but it limits different parts of the statement.
When a Modifier Has Two Possible Meanings
Consider:
The technician repaired the printer in the basement.
This sentence has two plausible interpretations.
Perhaps the technician repaired a particular printer, the one located in the basement.
Or perhaps the repair itself took place in the basement.
The sentence is not necessarily grammatically incorrect. The uncertainty comes from the possible relationship between in the basement and the rest of the sentence.
If the phrase identifies the printer, you could write:
The technician repaired the printer that was in the basement.
If the phrase indicates where the repair happened:
In the basement, the technician repaired the printer.
These changes help establish which interpretation the writer intends.
When a modifying expression seems unclear, consider what it could describe, what the sentence is supposed to mean, and whether a different position or structure would express that meaning more directly.
Sometimes moving a modifier is enough. In other cases, rewriting part of the sentence works better.
Common Modifier Errors
Three common modifier problems are misplaced, dangling, and squinting modifiers. Although they can produce similar confusion, the underlying problems are different.
Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier appears in a position that suggests an unintended meaning.
The librarian found a notebook in the storage room covered in dust.
The position of covered in dust may suggest that the storage room was dusty, even if the writer intended to describe the notebook.
A clearer version is:
In the storage room, the librarian found a notebook covered in dust.
The description now connects more clearly to the notebook.
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier lacks a suitable grammatical connection to the person or thing it is intended to describe.
Walking through the abandoned factory, the broken windows caught Daniel’s attention.
The opening phrase appears to describe the broken windows, even though Daniel was the person walking.
To correct the sentence:
Walking through the abandoned factory, Daniel noticed the broken windows.
Now the subject Daniel is also the person performing the action in the opening phrase.
Squinting Modifiers
A squinting modifier appears between two expressions and can reasonably be interpreted with either one.
Employees who attend training sessions regularly receive certificates.
Does regularly describe how often employees attend training or how often they receive certificates?
If the intended meaning concerns attendance:
Employees who regularly attend training sessions receive certificates.
If the intended meaning concerns the frequency of certification:
Employees who attend training sessions receive certificates regularly.
Both meanings are grammatically possible, but the original placement leaves room for uncertainty.
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers
Some modifiers are needed to identify the person or thing being discussed. Others supply additional information about someone or something already identified.
This distinction is particularly important with relative clauses.
Restrictive Modifiers
A restrictive modifier narrows the reference of a noun.
The employees who completed the safety course received certificates.
The relative clause identifies which employees received certificates. The sentence does not say that every employee received one.
Restrictive relative clauses are not normally separated from the noun by commas.
Nonrestrictive Modifiers
A nonrestrictive modifier adds supplementary information about a person or thing whose identity is already established.
The company’s founder, who retired last year, attended the anniversary celebration.
The relative clause provides an additional detail about the founder. It is not needed to identify that person.
Nonrestrictive relative clauses are separated by commas.
Compare:
My colleagues who work remotely will attend the online meeting.
My colleagues, who work remotely, will attend the online meeting.
The first sentence identifies the remotely working colleagues as the relevant group.
The second treats my colleagues as an already identified group and adds that they work remotely.
In standard English, that can introduce many restrictive relative clauses, but it is not normally used to introduce nonrestrictive relative clauses.
Check Your Understanding
The following examples test three different skills: recognizing a modifier, interpreting a restriction, and correcting an unclear construction.
1. Which expression modifies a noun?
The editor approved the revised article after a lengthy discussion.
Consider revised and after a lengthy discussion.
Answer: Revised modifies the noun article. It tells us which version of the article was approved.
The phrase after a lengthy discussion indicates when the approval took place. Within that phrase, lengthy also modifies the noun discussion.
This shows that one sentence can contain modifiers working at different levels.
2. What does the word only restrict?
The supervisor approved only the travel expenses.
Answer: Only restricts the travel expenses. It indicates that the approval was limited to those expenses.
The sentence does not tell us whether other supervisors also approved them.
Compare:
Only the supervisor approved the travel expenses.
Now the restriction applies to who approved the expenses.
3. How would you correct this sentence?
After completing the inspection, the report was submitted to the manager.
The opening phrase suggests that the report completed the inspection, although the intended meaning involves a person performing that action.
One possible correction is:
After completing the inspection, the safety officer submitted the report to the manager.
The subject the safety officer now provides a logical connection to the opening phrase.
A sentence may contain several modifiers, but each one needs a clear relationship with the words around it. When a description or limitation could apply in more than one way, a small change in wording can make the intended meaning clearer.
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